CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Cattle is the most common type of large domesticated ungulates.
They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are
the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos Primigenius. Cattle is
originally identified as three separate species: Bos taurus, the European or
"taurine" cattle (including similar types from Africa and Asia); Bos indicus, the zebu; and the extinct Bos primigenius, the aurochs. The
aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle. Recently these three have
increasingly been grouped as one species, with Bos primigenius taurus, Bos primigenius indicus and Bos
primigenius primigenius as the subspecies. Significantly, the sequences of
scientific classification for cattle are Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata,
Class: Mammalia, Subclass: Theria, Order: Artiodactyla, Family: Bovidae,
Subfamily: Bovinae, Genus: Bos, Species: Bos
primigenius taurus, Bos primigenius
indicus or synonyms are Bos Taurus and
Bos indicus.
Based on the function, cattle is
divided into two types, dairy cattle and beef cattle. Dairy cattle are kept and
raised specially for milk production. Many types of
cattle are used for milk production such as, Holstein, Australian
Illawarra, Ayrshire, Jersey, and Brown
Swiss. Beef cattle is bred and raised specifically
to provide meat or beef. Steers are the best type for this purpose
because they can be kept in herds without fighting each other. Heifers are also often used for beef,
especially those that are not suitable to be used in a breeding herd. The cows of beef cattle are
used to give birth to and raise calves for meat. The meat from a calf is called veal and from an older beast, beef. Beef cattle are often allowed graze
over large areas because they do not have to be brought in every day like dairy
cattle. The biggest farms in the world are cattle stations in
Australia, ranches in
North America and ranchos in Latin America where they run beef
cattle. Many types of beef cattle such as Hereford, Angus, Red Angus,
Shorthorn,
Brahman, Limousin,
Simmental,
and Texas
Longhorn. In Indonesia, Madura and Bali cattle are originally
domesticated.
The
primary product such as milk and meat can be changed by different
process become specific products. Some milk is also turned into cheese, milk
candy, ice cream, butter, cream, and
even yogurt. All
of these dairy products are packaged or put into cartons or bottles and sold.
Then some meat is also turned into sausage,
meatballs, shredded, corned beef, and steak. The quality products depend on
primary products, milk and meat. Therefore, there should be raising management
to produce good quality products.
Management in all business and organizational activities
is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and
objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management
comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling
an organization or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Management
is related to factor of production with machines, materials, and
money. But, in this case the management meaning is a way to organize the area
include house and feed as a good residence for stock, because management affects to the growth of stock and production of stock. Therefore, management is very important for
farmers. So, in this paper will be explained about guide
management of beef cattle.
1.2 Problem
The research problem in this paper is:
a.
How about growth of beef
cattle?
b.
How about feed of beef cattle?
c.
How about housing of beef
cattle?
d.
How about environment of beef
cattle?
1.3 Objective
The research objective in this paper is:
a.
To know the growth of beef
cattle.
b.
To know the feed of beef
cattle.
c.
To know about housing of beef
cattle.
d.
To know condition of
environment for beef cattle.
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
2.1 The
Growth of Beef Cattle
The growth was due to major changes in the number, size
or dimension of the level of individual cells and organs that can be measured
by weight, length, bone age, and metabolic balance. The growth are irreversible
(cannot back into shape). For example, the bodies of children grew up to adolescence until
death. Growth is qualitative or has a value that can be measured in numbers. This
is same with the growth of beef cattle from calf until become adult cattle that
irreversible. Overall, growth in beef cattle were divided into 3 phases, that
is growth of pre-natal (before birth), pre-weaning growth (during lactation),
and growth after weaning.
First, pre-natal growth, in beef cattle growth in the
number of prenatal affected fetus in the uterus. Number fetus caused many
feedstuffs parent inadequate and resulting children born small. In cattle that
produces one child (monoparous), body weight and age of the parent affects the
growth of pre-natal. Parent with small body weight will give birth weight calves
are smaller than the older parent and larger. The difference is due to the
environment in the uterus, such as uterus size. Calf birth weights also vary
depending father, meaning immortality factor plays a role in pre-natal growth.
Second, pre-weaning growth, affected by quality and
quantity of parent milk. When the number of children is too much like the pigs,
milk production inadequate needs of all children grow optimally. Some calves
grow at a rapid rate and the other growing at a lower rate that varies during
lactation. Milk production of parent a significant influenced on the growth of
the calf when feeding. If the feed for parent is good, but the quantity is not
adequate, the parent will produce less milk and will reduce calf growth. When
the mains feed enough and well, growing of male calf faster than the male calf castration,
castrated calves grow faster than females during the period of suckling calves.
When the mains feed poorly, growing male calves at feeding the difference is
very small compared to the calf females. Within 6-7 months, the calf has been
weaned and expected to grow into heifers with good body weight.
Third, post weaning growth, is growth that occurred
between the times of weaning until slaughter, the weight of about 1000-1100 lbs
(453.59237kg-498.951607kg). For example, Hereford reach puberty at the age of
approximately 15 months, at this age weighs 1200lbs (544.310844kg) or more.
They will grow steadily until age of 25 months with a weight can reach 1800lbs
(816.466266kg) to 2700lbs (1224.699399kg). Maturity / Adult body, after the
animal reached adult body weight changes caused by the addition or reduction of
body fat content. Weight gain during fattening is not the existence of growth
because there is no formation of body protein occurs. In fact, animal protein
tends to lose body with advancing age. Loss of body protein in cattle is the
phenomenon of the "aging process". This growth also affected by
external factor such as feed, housing, environment. The external factor can be
organized by good management of farmer.
2.2 Feed
of Beef Cattle
Feed is a material that had to consume by stock in order
to get source of energy and another compounds such as protein, carbohydrate,
fat, vitamin, and mineral. The feed of stock is different based on content and
feeding also different depend on the age of stock.
2.2.1 Feed
of Beef Cattle Based on Age
A key concept that producers must keep in mind when
planning a cowherd nutrition program is the biological priority for nutrients.
The most important concept is that before a beef female will reproduce, the
other requirements (i.e., maintenance, growth and milk production) must first
be met. Meeting the nutritional requirements of beef cows at minimal cost is
complicated by the fact that many variables influence cow requirements and the
nutritional composition of feedstuffs. In addition, requirements after give
birth for calf important one also in order the calf can growth well. The
sequence of good feed for growth of beef cattle can be divided into several phase.
Naturally, the new born calf will usually suckle
directly to its mother after 30 minutes of birth. Giving colostrum to the
newborn calf is very important. Colostrum is the milk is removed from the cow
that had just given birth. Yellowish colostrum and thicker than normal milk.
Colostrum usually given for 4-6 days after the calf was born. Newborn calves
also need to be given vitamin A, D, E orally as 1ml. delayed administration of
colostrum can cause decreased calf endurance so susceptible to disease and can
also cause death. The composition of colostrum is very good as nutrition, immune,
and support cell growth. Colostrum contains a great energy, protein six times
as much, a good vitamin A, and minerals three times more than normal milk.
Therefore the provision of colostrum in calves is very important to determine
calf survival.
Then after the calf was more than four or six days,
began to given milk calf. The amount of milk given as 8-10% of body weight
calf. For example, a calf weighing 20 kg was given as much as 2-3 liters of
milk per cow per day. Milk was given in stages, 2 to 3 times a day in the
morning, afternoon, and evening. The amount of milk given increasing weight
adjusted until the calf reaches the age of 2 months. After the age of two months,
the amount of milk given to calves is reduced to 1 liter per cow per day until
the calf is weaned at the age of about four months of age. In addition, green
feed should be introduced when the calves from 2 to 3 weeks. Forage dose of
approximately 0.5 to 1 kg per cow per day and the number is continually added
until calf weaning phase. Typically, in the form of grass forage of good
quality and fine texture, due to health young digestive organs.
At the age of 3 months, the calf was introduced with
normal drinking water for the preparation of the weaning process. Drinking
enough water is provided only on an ad libitum so that the calf can directly
drink if thirsty.
Table 2.1 Feeding Stages
AGE
|
KIND OF FEED
|
DOSAGE
|
1-6 days
|
Colostrum
|
1-2 liter per one gift
|
6 days-4 months
|
milk
|
8-10% of Body Weight
|
2-3 months
|
forage
|
0.2-0.4 kg/cow/day with
fine texture
|
3-4 months
|
forage
|
0.5-0.7 kg/cow/day
|
≥ 4 months
|
a.
Concentrate
b.
Forage
|
a.
1kg/cow/day
b.
8-10% of feed wet weight
|
≥6 months
|
a.
Concentrate
b.
Forage
|
a.
2kg/cow/day
b.
Depend on the growth of cow
|
2.2.2 Feed of Beef Cattle Based on Content
Stock feed is usually categorized as either concentrates (high in
energy) or roughage (higher in fiber, but lower in energy). Concentrates can be
high in either energy or protein content. Protein concentrates generally
contain more than 20% crude protein. Each kind of feed
containing different compound. According of that, we can divide the types of
feed for beef cattle.
2.2.2.1 Based on Energy Concentrates
Products
Within each
feed certainly contain energy as first requirement. The main requirement of stock is for
energy about 80% of the diet. One problem with feeding based on energy values
is getting the stock to physically eat enough. Feeds high in fiber, such as
mature pasture hay, cereal hay and straw, cannot be eaten in large quantities
because they are digested slowly and stock physically can't fit enough in. This
shortfall in energy requirements results in the animal using body fat to meet
its needs. To avoid this, do not use low energy feeds as a sole ration. Mix
high-fiber feeds with higher quality feeds, such as pasture, silage, good
quality hay, grain or some other high energy feed to meet overall requirements.
Several examples of feed contain
good energy.
a.
Almond Hulls
Almond hull products vary considerably
due to varietal differences and harvesting procedures. Soft almond hulls have
about 85% of the energy value of barley grain. Some supplies of almond hulls,
however, are contaminated with sticks, dirt, hard shells and other foreign
materials at harvest time. This greatly reduces their feeding value and
acceptability by livestock. Almond hulls can be used as a partial roughage
replacement when roughage supplies are short and forage prices are high. When
mixed with other ingredients in commercial concentrate mixes, almond hulls
usually are restricted to 20% or less, in order to maintain high nutrient
levels and palatability of the concentrate mix. In complete feedlot rations,
almond hulls are limited to about 30% or less.
b.
Apple Pomace
Apple pomace is the by-product of
apples used for cider or vinegar production. It can be fed fresh, ensiled or
dried. Two problems have hampered feeding of apple pomace in recent years.
Pesticide contamination has been a problem in some areas, making the pomace
unacceptable in dairy and (occasionally) sheep and beef rations. A second
difficulty is that urea or other non protein nitrogen compounds should not be
fed with apple pomace because of the possibility of abortions and/or
abnormalities of offspring. The reason for this is unknown. Apple pomace is a
highly palatable feed, medium in energy but very low in protein. When properly
supplemented, it can replace up to about one-third of the concentrates in
rations and 15-20% in complete feedlot rations.
c.
Bakery Waste
Large amounts of unsold bread,
doughnuts, cakes and other pastries are available in some areas and are
excellent energy sources for ruminant rations. Bakery waste however, may
potentially contain meat or other animal protein and should therefore be used
with caution and in accordance with ruminant feed ban legislation. Bakery waste
is usually high in fat and low in crude fiber. Protein levels (on a dry-matter
basis) in the range of 10-12% are typical. The low fiber content of the baked
material and the baking process itself result in a feed which tends to
stimulate ruminal propionate and reduce ruminal acetate production. This is
desirable for feedlot livestock being fattened for market. Up to about 10% can
be included in feedlot rations when supplies and economics are favourable.
Supplies should be fed quickly.
d.
Brewer’s Grains
Brewer’s grains have 20-25% crude
protein (on a dry matter basis), making them a good protein source in addition
to their energy value. The brewing process makes this protein less soluble than
that from many protein supplements. This could be valuable in rations, such as
silage supplement with non-protein nitrogen, which contain large amounts of soluble
protein. Brewer’s grains are fed both wet and dried. In the dry form they have
about 80% of the energy value of barley grain (the energy value varies
depending on the brewery and additives used in the brewing process). They are
not as palatable in the dried form as the original grain and are usually
included as 25% or less of a dairy concentrate mix, and 1-20% in feedlot
rations.
e.
Citrus Pulp
Citrus pulp is classified as a
concentrate but is also valuable as a partial roughage replacement because of
its high level of digestible fibre. It commonly contains about 15% crude fibre
in the dry matter. Its energy value is about 94% of the value of barley grain.
It has only about 7% crude protein in the dry matter. Citrus pulp is usually
fed dehydrated. It must be introduced gradually into a ration to let stock get
accustomed to its distinctive smell and taste. Levels of up to 15-20% are
acceptable in feedlot rations. Citrus pulp can also be fed fresh or as silage.
Both are very acceptable to stock but pulp and peels from lemons are somewhat
more acceptable than those from oranges and grapefruit. Transportation costs
preclude the wet pulp from being fed very far from processing plants. Citrus
pulp is high in calcium and low in phosphorus, and can aggravate the high
calcium-to-phosphorus ratio in a ration when fed with legumes such as lucerne.
Unless counter-balanced by other feeds low in calcium and high in phosphorus,
citrus pulp can result in higher incidences of milk fever in cattle at, or soon
after, parturition.
2.2.2.2 Based on Protein
Concentrates Products
Many crops grown for oil production also produce by-products high in
protein. These by-products are the primary source of supplemental protein in
livestock rations. These include coconut meal, corn gluten meal, cottonseed
meal, linseed meal, safflower meal, soybean meal and sunflower meal. Some of
these have high fat levels and should therefore not be fed as the whole diet.
Additionally, such by-products as distiller’s grains are used extensively as
protein supplements in livestock rations. Brewer’s grains, previously discussed
as an energy feed, are also relatively high in protein content. Several example
of feeds that contain protein in high number.
a.
Coconut Meal or Kopra
Coconut meal, popularly known as copra,
is one of the most palatable feeds available for livestock. It is high in
energy and contains about 20% protein. Rancidity can be a problem during
storage if the meal is high in fat but high-fat copra contains considerably
more energy than copra produced by the solvent process.
b.
Cottonseed Meal
Cottonseed meal is a by-product of the
production of cotton lint and cottonseed oil. It contains about 40% protein and
is well liked by livestock. The amount of oil left in the meal will affect its
energy value (amounts vary according to the method of processing). Energy
levels, however, are somewhat lower than those found in some other protein
supplements such as coconut meal, soybean meal and linseed meal.
c.
Linseed Meal
Linseed meal, the by-product of the
extraction of linseed oil from flaxseed, is an excellent protein supplement for
livestock. It is used as a protein
supplement and contains somewhat less TDN than soybean meal. A good source of
selenium, it averages 1.0 ppm. Protein content varies from about 30-38% depending on the source of
processing method. When reasonably priced, it can be used as the only protein
supplement in livestock rations because it is very palatable.
d.
Safflower Meal
Safflower meal has increased in
availability and importance as a protein supplement in recent years because of
the popularity of safflower oil in human diets. Safflower meal from unhulled
seeds, has about 20% protein, is high in fiber and is relatively low in energy.
Meal made from well-hulled seeds has about 40% protein and is much higher in
energy. Safflower meal from either source, however, is not as palatable to
livestock as the more common protein supplements and is usually restricted to
20% or less of concentrate mix.
e.
Soybean Meal
f.
Sunflower Meal
Protein levels vary from 20-25%, depending
on the processing method and whether the seed is hulled or not. It is roughly
equivalent to cottonseed meal as a protein supplement for livestock.
2.2.2.3 Based on Roughage Products
Generally, cattle eating pasture will
get enough fiber in their diet. Cattle need a certain amount of fiber in their
diet to ensure that the rumen functions properly. Too little fiber can result
in acidosis, as the feed is digested too quickly and the rumen isn’t able to
function properly. Too much fiber will restrict intake and animal performance
because the feed is digested too slowly. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) is a
measure of all the fiber (the digestible and indigestible parts) and indicates
how bulky the feed is. A high NDF will mean lower intake. Conversely, lower NDF
values lead to higher intakes. The
ideal level of fiber in the diet
is 30% NDF for all classes of
cattle. Several example of feeds that contain rich of fiber.
a.
Canola hay and silage
Canola hay and silage are likely to be
available as a fodder source in droughts where frost damage has occurred. Both
hay and silage can be of good quality but this can vary and there are some
livestock considerations Canola hay that has not been aggressively conditioned
may have sharp stalk ends and these can pose a problem to animals by piercing
the rumen. There have been reported instances of nitrate poisoning from canola
products. It is recommended that canola hay or silage is introduced slowly, and
that it is not fed as a sole ration or to starving animals.
b.
Rice Hay
Rice hay is generally good palatable
roughage of equivalent feed value to cereal hays. Rice hay, however, is known
to contain significant levels of silica and oxalate, both of which may cause
problems to livestock. High dietary silica levels can predispose animals to
urinary calculi. If rice hay is fed as the roughage in a hay and grain diet, it
is suggested that 1.5% limestone and 0.5% salt is fed to correct the calcium:
phosphorus balance in the ration. Rice hay can contain a range of weeds such as
umbrella sedge, barnyard grass, starfruit and wild millet.
c.
Rice Hulls
Rice hulls have practically no feed
value but can be useful as bedding material for livestock. They are very high
in crude fiber and silica and the fiber is largely indigestible. Up to 15% of
unground rice hulls, however, can be included as a roughage source in drought
rations being fed to livestock.
d.
Sawdust
Sawdust has virtually no feed value for
sheep or cattle because of its high level of lignification. It has been shown
to be useful, however, when feeding high concentrate diets to sheep or cattle
during droughts. Sheep survival rates in drought have been shown to be better
when 15-20% sawdust (hoop pine and spotted gum) was included in the wheat rations.
Sawdust has also been successfully used as a diluent for adapting cattle to a
concentrated diet. The inclusion of 5-15% sawdust in maize based diets for
cattle was found to maintain better rumen function as evidenced by fewer cases
of bloat and liver lesions and less ruminal perakeratosys. Coarse sawdust was
better than fine sawdust in maintaining rumen function. Sawdust from treated
timber should not be used.
e.
Seaweed
Kelp represents the most common type of
seaweed that might be available for feeding. The dry matter of kelp contains
about 30% minerals (compared to 5-6% in hay, pasture, etc). Kelp contains
0.15-0.2% iodine. Seaweed is sometimes used as a mineral source for livestock.
Kelp can be fed quite satisfactorily at up to about 25% of the diet of
livestock. The composition of dried kelp is dry matter 91%, crude protein 6%,
minerals (ash content) 30%. ME value of kelp is about 5MJ per kg DM. The rich
mineral content of seaweed, especially salt, can make the material quite
palatable to livestock.
2.3 Housing
of Beef Cattle
Make a ready
housing and technique, the farmer ought to have worked out a detailed plan of
action for taking the new housing and techniques into use. The schedule should
consider all the tasks, e.g. preparation of the milking system, checking of
drinking water systems, running in of feeding systems, feed silos and tanks as
well as preparing the resting area. It is important that there is sufficient
labour available on the farm during the period when the new housing system is
taken into use. It may be necessary to hire extra staffs for a period of time.
If the farmer has already considered the above-mentioned
measures and chosen a date, outside the peak load period, when the new housing
should be taken into use his full attention can be devoted to accustoming
cattle to the new housing. Each kind of house (another term are stalls, hut,
pen, etc) of beef cattle is different depend on the age of stock. We can divide
into three groups of house type, calf huts, young stock stalls, and bull stalls
(areas of fattening).
2.3.1
Calf Huts
From cattle are new
born until they are six months old they are called calves. Hut with deep litter
and an outdoor exercise fold. Concentrate and hay are supplied inside the hut
or in the exercise fold. Milk and water should be supplied by means of teat
bucket or bowl placed in the exercise fold. It is recommended to house calves
that are less than 8 weeks old in calf huts with exercise folds. The exercise
fold is necessary in order for the calves to be able to see and touch each
other. Calves are not allowed to be tied up permanently.
a.
Dimensions
Lists the hut and exercise fold minimum dimensions for
one calf.
Table 2.2 Calf hut and exercise fold Dimensions.
 Body weight, kg |
Under 60
|
Over 60
|
Hut
|
||
Recommended area, (m2)
|
1.70
|
2.00
|
Area, min., (m2)
|
1.20
|
1.40
|
Length, min., (m)
|
1.20
|
1.40
|
Width, min., (m)
|
1.00
|
1.00
|
Floor to ceilingheight, min., (m)
|
1.10
|
1.25
|
Exercise fold
|
||
Area, min., (m2)
|
1.20
|
1.20
|
Length, min., (m)
|
1.20
|
1.20
|
Width, min., (m)
|
1.00
|
1.00
|
Height, min., (m)
|
1.10
|
1.10
|
b.
Separation / material
Calf huts should have a bright colour to avoid extremely
high temperatures inside the hut during summer. Moreover, huts should be
equipped with an adjustable ventilation vent. The sides of the exercise fold
should be open, e.g. with vertical bars, allowing calves to see and touch each
other.
c.
Floor
Calf huts can be placed on a solid ground (e.g. concrete
or asphalt), from which liquid is channelled to the storage tank for urine and
liquid manure, or they may be placed on well-drained soil or grass. In the
latter case the hut must be moved every second month. Finally, huts must be
well-littered.
d.
Feeding rack
In order to prevent
calves from putting their forelegs out of the feeding rack while they eat, the
lowest part of the rack should be solid (all the way up to bowls/buckets). The
feeding rack must be supplied with openings, through which the calf can put its
head when it drinks and eats.
e.
Feed bowls, teat bucket, and
hayrack
It is recommended to supply milk by means of
teat bucket instead of bowl. A good hygiene is important regardless of the
chosen milk supply means. Teat buckets should be demountable and easy to clean.
A dummy teat should be provided in those pens where milk is supplied by means
of bowls. The feed bowls must be acid proof and the sides of the bowl should be
almost vertical. Moreover, it should be possible to demount bowls when they
must be cleaned. Water, fresh drinking water should be supplied at least two
times per day in teat buckets or bowls. Nipple drinkers are not recommended. If
calves are housed in single pens more than one week after birth, a hayrack
should be mounted above the dividing panel between two pens.
2.3.2
Young Stock Stalls
Young stock is a
joint term for male and female cattle from the age of six months until
determination for slaughter or calving. Some housing systems are more suitable
for calves and others for young stock, while others may very well be used
during the whole rearing period. When calf stop drinking colostrum they should
be placed in joint pens. One of joint pen shape is joint pen with slatted floor and it will be explained below.
a.
Feeding areas
The feeding area
consists of an area, which the animals can stand on during the feed intake, a
feeding rack to separate animal and feed as well as a trough/feed alley from
which the feed is supplied.
b.
Dimensions
The wide of joint pen area depend on the number of stock
inside.
c.
Drinking Water
For information
about drinking water allocation, watering cup and water trough designs as well
as their location, see in the picture 2.19.
d.
Floor
The floor must be
able to stand loads of animals, tools and machines. Moreover, it should be
impossible for moist to penetrate the floor and a suitable drain must be
established.
2.3.3
Bull Stalls (areas of fattening)
Male animals used
for breeding purposes are called breeding bulls. Why have to choose male
stocks? Because for female stocks has the purpose to produce calf continuously.
After selected in young stock stalls, the bull entered to the bull stalls or
called areas of fattening.
a.
feed rack and drinking water
Generally, the feed rack and drinking water used
together in one place. There is no specific line or boundary between feed of
one bull with another bull. It aims to feed the cleaning process easier. The
first is giving water, after that giving of concentrate, and finally feeding
forage. Give a drink done with water from a hose until evenly in all places
of drink.
b.
Dimensions
Stall size depends on the number of livestock in it. Usually
there is no guardrail.
c.
Floor
The floor is made as comfortable as possible because
livestock conditions cannot move.
d.
Rope
Rope is intended for cattle do not do a lot of
activities, it will expend a lot of energy. Besides, cattle in fattening
conditions for commercial needs.
2.4 The Environmental of Beef Cattle
When establishing
climatic requirements for cattle buildings, animals as well as staff must be
paid regard to. Climatic requirements that apply for the whole year for
temperature, air humidity, etc. cannot be established as absolute requirements.
Instead they must be established as climatic requirements for the winter
climate (temperature, air humidity and degree of pollution) and maximum
requirements for ventilation during summer. The regulation of the amount of
ventilating air between two extreme ends must ensure that the climate is kept
within acceptable limits.
Good environmental
practices not only conserve and improve natural resources, they also enhance
land productivity. Many beef cattle producers practice natural resource
management activities including soil tests, brush and weed control programs,
grazing management plans, minimum or conservation tillage systems and range
quality and grass utilization monitoring. NCBA's Environmental Stewardship
Award Program (ESAP) was established in 1991 in cooperation with the Natural
Resources Conservation Services (NRCS). The program recognizes beef cattle
operations that effectively combine stewardship and business practices. The
program not only highlights industry stewardship, but also provides examples
and ideas that may be applied by other livestock operators. In 2000, NCBA
adopted a livestock production and resource stewardship policy that includes
managing for the environment as a whole, including climate, soil, topography,
plant and animal communities and however the environment climate is first
important that should be known, including:
a.
Temperature
Beef Cattle
has optimum body temperature 38.33ºC. If the temperature more than 25ºC, the
beef cattle hard to maintain body temperature from heat stress. Therefore, to
ensure a good housing climate, a high degree of air change is recommended as well
as keeping the temperature as low as possible during frost-free periods. Full
production animals can very easily stand subzero temperatures as long as
conditions are dry and draught can be avoided. However, sick animals have
difficulties in standing low temperature. Draught may arise in housings with a
high wind speed in the areas where cattle stay. The result of the wind
supercooling, e.g. an outdoor temperature of 0°C and a wind speed of the wind
that enters the farm housing of 11 m/s, will by humans be perceived as a
cooling that corresponds to staying outdoor at -16°C. The temperature and season (all kind of
cattle consume significantly more water in summer and during warmer
temperatures).
b.
Air Humidity
The ratio of water vapour in air is normally expressed
in percentage relative humidity (% RH). The relative humidity for beef cattle
about 55%-100%. High relative air humidity is usual, if the farm building air
is extremely polluted due to a low air change. This may further the development
and spreading of environmental bacteria. High relative air humidity requires
higher amounts of litter, as it is difficult to keep the litter dry. Moist
housing surfaces will result in a shorter life of the buildings or increased
costs of maintenance.
c.
Wind Speed
From experience it is known that the wind speed in the
part of the housing where cattle stay should not exceed 0.2– 0.5 m/s. If this
happens the ambient air temperature may result in an increased cooling of the
surface temperature of the animal. This is the simple definition of draught. At
the same time this means that higher air velocities than the above-stated 0.2 –
0.5 m/s during periods of higher ambient air temperatures might be perceived
positively by cattle. In this situation the increased wind speed will result in
a desired cooling of the surface temperature of cattle.
d.
Precipitation
In the western country, precipitation e.g. in the form
of snow and heavy shower should not occur in the resting area, as the litter
will be moist and lose its insulation effect. Thus it will be very cold and
unhygienic.
e.
Gases
Carbon dioxide, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide will
influence the housing climate. The amount of these gases in the housing air
should be as low as possible. According to CIGR-1984 the animal welfare will be
affected if the concentrate of these gases exceeds the numbers stated in table
2.3.
Table 2.3 Recommendations for maximum accepted gas concentrations.
Compound
|
Concentrations
according of CIGR
|
Carbon dioxide
|
3000ppm
|
Ammonia
|
20ppm
|
Hydrogen sulphide
|
0.5ppm
|
f.
Dust
Dust comes partly from cattle, litter, manure remains
and from the feed. The content of dust in the air should be as low as possible.
However, dust in the housing air is normally not a problem for cattle. The
limit value of total dust is 3 mg/m3 air for staffs that work eight hours per
day.
g.
Light
Well-lit farm buildings will influence cattle directly
as indirectly. This is due to the fact that the length of the day (also the one
established by artificial light) is the outer stimulant, which by means of
hormones controls/synchronizes the sexual behavior and reproduction of cattle.
It is recommended that animals during the winter term should have about eight
hours without light during night and an artificial day length of about 16 hours
with working light.
h.
Sound
Cattle’s limit for acceptable noise level is unknown.
The farmer should aim at creating an acoustically pleasant environment, as
sudden high sounds in certain parts of the farm housing will be unpleasant for
both cattle and staff. As a consequence, they may be stressed.
CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
3.1 Conclusion
Based on the discussion, it can
be concluded that:
1.
There are several phases of
beef cattle growth, pre-natal growth, pre-weaning growth, and post-weaning
growth.
2.
Feed of beef cattle based on
the age, 1-6 days is colostrums, 6-3 days is milk, 2-4 months forage and milk,
≥4 - ≥6 months is concentrate and forage. Feed of beef cattle based on content
divided by energy concentrates product, protein concentrate product, and
roughage product.
3.
Housing of beef cattle be
adapted by the age. There are calf huts, young stock stalls, and bull stalls
(areas of fattening).
4.
The environment of beef cattle
influenced by temperature, air humidity, wind speed, precipitation, gases,
dust, light, and sound.
3.2 Suggestion
The author suggests that guide management of raising stock is very important, in order to keep the maintain growth of
stock for commercial or another purpose.
REFERENCES
Avenue, N. E. 2012. Environmental
Stewardship Program and Award, (online), (www.environmentalstewardship.org,
diakses 18 Oktober 2012).
Chytil, K. 2004. Design
Recommendationa of Beef Cattle Housing. Michigan: Brigitta Krimberger und
Ingrid Zainer.
Firman, R. A. 2011. Fase
Pertumbuhan Pada Ternak, (online), (http://adifirman.wordpress.com/,
diakses 18 Oktober 2012).
Hadi, V. P. & Ilham, N. 2002. Problem dan Prospek
Pengembangan Usaha Pembibitan Sapi Potong di Indonesia. Jurnal Litbang Pertanian 21(4): 148-157.
Harris, R. 2007. Drought
Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle. Melbourne: Victorian.
Ruswendi. 2011. Teknologi
Pakan Berkualitas untuk Sapi Potong, (online), (Bengkulu.litbang.deptan.go.id/,
diakses 18 Oktober 2012).
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